ANATOMY
Adenine & Thymine structure Adenine C5H5N5 (A) and thymine C5H6N2O (T) are complementary base pairs that form part of the DNA molecule. They are two of the four bases that make up DNA, along with cytosine (C) and guanine (G). Adenine and thymine pair by forming two hydrogen bonds between the two bases. The hydrogen bonds form between the electronegative oxygen atom on thymine and the slightly positive hydrogen on adenine the hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine are important for DNA to maintain its double helix structure. In DNA replication and transcription, reactions often start at A-T rich sites because it takes less energy to break the two hydrogen bonds between A and T than it does to break the three hydrogen bonds between G and C. Adenine and guanine are double-ringed purines, while cytosine and thymine are smaller, single-ringed pyrimidines. These two bases form 2 hydrogen bonds uniting the electronegative O atom (on thymine) and N atom (on adenine) with the slightly positive exposed hydrogens on each molecule , we now conclude that it is essential to supplement with Hydrogen peroxide for the Hydrogen and Oxygen nucleic bonds also Activated Charcoal supplements because of the carbon backbone of the nucleobases Adenine is a purine characterized by its double ring structure Thymine is a pyrimidine characterized by single ring structure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gclpzqdV7hs
The Race to Sequence the Human Genome and What It Means | Retro Report
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMfz506M-AY
Decoding Watson (2019) | Full Documentary | American Masters
Bone mineral density the level of bone mineral composition of the femur diaphysis and the distal femur in red-boned (n = 3) and common (n = 3) Guishan goats (mg/kg). The minerals found in the goat bone are Phosphorus , Magnesium ,Sodium ,Sulphur ,Barium ,Potassium ,iron ,Copper ,Silicoln ,Zinc ,Manganese & Aluminun most people have less bone density than goats
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EWXpkfXzFw
Human Bone Composition
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XbRLMbDtiaA
What Does Bone Marrow Actually Do?
Cytosine & guanine chemical structure Cytosine (C) and guanine (G) are complementary bases that pair together in DNA and RNA. They are two of the four main nucleotide bases that make up DNA, along with adenine (A) and thymine (T). Cytosine and guanine pair by forming three hydrogen bonds. The C-G base pairs are slightly stronger than the A-T base pairs. The CG pairs bind more tightly than the AT pairs, so long stretches of CG make stronger helixes than stretches of AT. What Does Cytosine Pair With? In both DNA and RNA, cytosine pairs with guanine (C = G) by forming three hydrogen bonds. Since adenine and thymine only have two hydrogen bonds, C-G base pairs are slightly more strongly attached than A-T or A-U base pairs. Guanine is complementary to cytosine. The genetic code is the way that the four bases are strung together so that the ribosome can read them and turn them into a protein. Guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system we now conclude that it is essential to supplement with Hydrogen peroxide for the Hydrogen and Oxygen nucleic bonds also Activated Charcoal supplements because of the carbon backbone of the nucleobases Guanine is a purine characterized by its double ring structure Cytosine is a pyrimidine characterized by single ring structure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1vm3od_UmFg
The DNA Double Helix Discovery — HHMI BioInteractive Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_-6JXLYS-k&t=17s
The Structure of DNA
DNA in 1869, Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher discovered a molecule in white blood cells that he called "nuclein". Miescher's discovery was later renamed nucleic acid and then deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Virus make up 8 percent of the human genome, & a new study finds that these sequences are still active in healthy people. Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. Jim Watson contributed to the discovery of DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the double-ringed purines. In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine. Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information. This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation. Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. Before typical cell division, these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA, and some in the mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes. Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed. Later studies sought to build on the work of the Human Genome Project and have provided additional details on the genome sequence. We now know that the human genome contains about 19,900 genes used to produce proteins.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8DDenDpiSU
DNA - Episode 1 of 5: The Secret of Life - PBS Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y5r5UzheO-o
DNA Episode 2 of 5 Playing God PBS Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ZvPZke8NXc
DNA - Episode 3 of 5 - The Human Race - PBS Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-ZNT--epnw
DNA Episode 4 of 5 Curing Cancer ✪ PBS Nova Documentary Channel
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8iGEGPL3-E
DNA - Episode 5 of 5 - Pandora's Box - PBS Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qav579ZURpk
The world's oldest DNA: Extinct beasts of ancient Greenland
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0GX24jmsNIc
This Is What All Life is Made Of | Cell | BBC Earth Science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TAdQdhwBvww
DNA: the Secret of Life
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RvdxGDJogtA
How I discovered DNA - James Watson
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZAmbbTcQ3M
Your Operating System ｜Eukaryotic Transcription
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhDLA6ZPQQI
100 Greatest Discoveries 6 Genetics2
DNA structure discovered by February 28 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick published their discovery of DNA's structure in Nature. Their discovery was based on X-ray diffraction images taken by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. DNA composed of Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus & Carbon Purines ADENiNE 5 Nitrogen 2 Hydrogen GUANiNE 5 Nitrogen 2 Hydrogen 1 Oxygen Pyrimidines THYMiNE 1 Hydrogen 2 Nitrogen 2 Oxygen CYTOSiNE 1 Hydrogen 3 Nitrogen 1 Oxygen RIBOSE SUGAR PHOSPHATE 4 Oxygen 1 Phosphorus; levels of Nitrogen Hydrogen Oxygen and Phosphorus decline with age it is vital & important to supplement with Oxygen Hydrogen peroxide Phosphorus & Nitrogen i believe in genetic engineering & to people who say "you are trying to play God using genetic engineering" my answer is we are God's instruments & "if we don't play God who will" James Watson / photo 51 reveals the structure of DNA thank God for the pioneers of the early 1950's who studied the fundamental structure of DNA we can now thanks to them create medicines with modern efficacy to cure cancer obesity parkinsons & alzheimer's Each cell contains about 6 feet of DNA. The human body contains a very small amount of DNA, weighing only a few trillionths of a gram. The exact amount of DNA in a person depends on how many cells they have, which is difficult to calculate. The human genome contains about 3.1 billion base pairs if stretched out, the DNA in a single human cell would be about 2 meters long. The nucleus of a human cell is only about 6 micrometers in diameter this means that DNA is packed into the nucleus very tightly, similar to packing 24 miles of thread into a tennis ball. The amount of DNA in different tissues of the body varies. For example, the brain contains about 20 picograms of DNA, while the placenta contains about 750 picograms. The average adult human body is estimated to contain about 37 trillion cells. Each human cell contains about 6 picograms (pg) of DNA. To calculate the total amount of DNA in the body: Total DNA = Number of Cells × DNA per Cell
Digestive organs God created the human body when he created Adam in the garden of Eden , in this video all digestive organs of the human body are explained in detail and their functioning is described. We will look at the salivary glands, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine and the liver with the gall bladder. Psalms 84:2 My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the LORD: my heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X3TAROotFfM
Human digestive system - How it works! (Animation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=svkPGF0SbPA&t=9s
Digestive system
GDF11 Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), also known as bone morphogenetic protein 11 (BMP-11), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the growth differentiation factor 11 gene. GDF11 is a member of the Transforming growth factor beta family. GDF11 acts as a cytokine and its sequence is highly conserved in humans, mice and rats. The bone morphogenetic protein group is characterized by a polybasic proteolytic processing site, which is cleaved to produce a protein containing seven conserved cysteine residues. GDF11 is essential for mammalian development and has been suggested to regulate aging of multiple tissues. It functions in the heart, skeletal muscle, and brain. Review. GDF11 helps muscle regeneration. One of these blood factors is growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), a member of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) superfamily, which has a critical role in embryonic development as a key regulator of patterning and formation of several tissues : Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11), a member of the transforming growth factor β superfamily of cytokines, is a critical rejuvenation factor in aging cells. GDF11 improves neurodegenerative and neurovascular disease outcomes, increases skeletal muscle volume, and enhances muscle strength. In the aged brain, exogenous, peripherally delivered GDF11 may enhance neurogenesis and angiogenesis, as well as improve neuropathological outcomes. GDF11 is expressed in many tissues, including skeletal muscle, pancreas, kidney, nervous system, and retina. The half‐life of GDF11 at these concentrations was found to be of 12 hr. Loss of myostatin function in mice, cattle, and sheep results in a dramatic increase in muscle mass With all of this as background, it was a source of surprise when a series of papers came out in 2013 and 2014, reporting first that GDF11 levels decreased as a function of age in the mouse, and that restoring GDF11 levels improved cardiac function and muscle regeneration
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-MTzRXiKf-w
Is GDF11 the Fountain of Youth?
Heme Fe Protoporphyrin iX Heme Iron ,The chemical formula for heme is C34H32FeN4O4. Heme is an iron-containing molecule that combines with globin to form hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. There are four heme groups in each hemoglobin molecule. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. Heme is made up of ferrous iron & protoporphyrin IX (PPIX). It's a vital cofactor for many key proteins, such as cytochrome p450, peroxidases & catalases the first demonstration of iron in blood was by Lemery and Geoffroy in 1713 However it was not until 1925 that the existence of non hemoglobin iron was documented by Fontes and Thivolle , iron deficiency anemia was discovered in 1852 by Karl Vierordt , 250 g of steak = 6mg of heme iron, iron is stored in the liver as ferritin. Every second, 2-3 million Red Blood Cells are produced in the bone marrow & released into the circulation. Also known as (erythrocytes red blood cells that in humans is typically a biconcave disc without a nucleus. Erythrocytes contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, & transport oxygen & carbon dioxide to & from tissues) Red Blood Cells are the most common type of cell found in the blood, with each cubic millimeter of blood containing 4-6 million cells. Erythrocytes live for 120 days. Red blood cells lifespan is 4 months, approximately 25 trillion red blood cells circulate in the bloodstream of an adult individual, 2 million red blood cells are produced each second, hematopoietic multipotent stem cells (hemocytoblasts) in the bone marrow make red & white blood cells.The heart beats 39 million times a year. pumping blood through out the body . Multipotent stem cells in the bone marrow make up 0.007 percent of the total cells in the bone marrow. The kidney in 24 h filters 1800 Liters of blood every 2 minutes 1.2 liters are filtered in the kidney 180 liters is filtered out through urinate 1.5 liters. Blood ph is at 7.35 to 7.4 . During aging hematopoietic stem cells (hemocytoblasts) loose their ability to regenerate. When blood returns to the brain after a stroke leukocytes attach to blood vessels & cause damage, without stem cells there is no immune system, iron is absorbed in the deudenum & proximal jejunumin in the presence of the low ph acid in the gastric proximal duodenum. An enzyme called ferrireductase cytochrome b on the duodenal enterocytes converts insoluble iron to absorbable ferrous iron. Two type of iron ferrous haem from meat easily absorbed 15-35% & Non haem ferric insoluble iron which comes from plants not easily absorbed. Each erythrocyte red blood cell contains approximately 270 million hemoglobin molecules each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 oxygen atoms; each red blood cell can carry 1 billion oxygen molecules , there are 1 billion eighty million iron atoms in each red bood cell There are four iron atoms in each molecule of hemoglobin, which accordingly bind four molecules of oxygen. Hemoglobin is made of protoporphyrin & iron which is heme & globin. There are over 5 trillion iron atoms in 1 g of iron hemoglobin carry o2 from lungs & co2 from peripheral tissue to lungs. There are 1.2 billion Oxygen molecules in each red blood cell. The yolk sac is the site of red blood synthesis from 15 days after fertilization to 6 weeks then the liver is the site of red blood cell synthesis from 6 weeks until 30 weeks after prenatal life the bone marrow is the site of red blood cell synthesis 30 weeks onwards. There is iron in myoglobin cytochromes catalase & Peroxidase iron plays a role in dna synthesis & the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain of the mitochondria depends on iron as an electron acceptor/donor at multiple steps of electron transport chain. Cytochrome c, Cytochrome c oxidase I (COX1), and Succinate Dehydrogenase are all iron-dependent enzymes. There are 5 litters of blood in the body 40% erythrocytes red blood cells full of iron the rest 60% is leukocytes (b&t cells) & platelets ,supplement with iron pills. Iron metabolism is finely regulated. Males contain about 4,000 mg of iron, of which 2,500 mg is within erythrocytes; 1,000 mg is stored in splenic and hepatic macrophages, and the rest is distributed in various proteins such as myoglobin, cytochromes or other ferroproteins. The mitochondrion requires sufficient amounts of iron to maintain its normal physiologic function, since iron is the most prevalent metal inside the mitochondrial matrix iron serves to facilitate the complex redox chemistry of the electron transport chain .The reference range for albumin testing is as follows: The normal range is 3.5 to 5.5 g/dL or 35-55 g/liter. This range may vary slightly in different laboratories. Albumin composes 50%-60% of blood plasma proteins. it is important to supplement with Albumin seeing that it comprises 60% blood volume . Albumin is protein in your blood plasma. Low albumin levels might be the result of kidney disease, liver disease, inflammation or infections. Albumin helps move many small molecules through the blood, including bilirubin, calcium, progesterone, and some medicines. It plays an important role in keeping the fluid in the blood from leaking into the tissues. Medicinal albumin is made of plasma proteins from human blood. This medicine works by increasing plasma volume or levels of albumin in the blood. Albumin is used to replace blood volume loss resulting from trauma such as a severe burns or an injury that causes blood loss. Most blood cells are made in your bone marrow. This process is called haemopoiesis. In children, haemopoiesis takes place in the long bones, like the thighbone (femur). In adults, it's mostly in the spine (vertebrae) and hips, ribs, skull and breastbone (sternum). 8 out of 10 cells in the body are red blood cells , normal erythrocyte count is 50% 17 grams per decilitre; there are 100 000 miles of blood vessels in the human body there are 45 miles of nerves on human skin, the surface area of lungs can cover half a tennis court , the aorta is the same diameter as a garden hose blood travelling through the aorta does so at 1mile an hour the bone marrow creates 100 million platelets everyday; The most abundant cell in human body is Erythrocytes (red blood cells) : 4.5 - 5.5 millions per mL. Platelets are 1,40,000 - 4,00,000 per mL. White blood cells are 5,000 - 10,000 per mL. Neutrophils, lymphocytes and basophils are all included in this number. Approximately 84% of the cells in the human body are the 20–30 trillion red blood cells. Nearly half of the blood's volume (40% to 45%) is red blood cells. Red blood cells (RBCs) are by far the most abundant type of cell in the human body, accounting for over 80 percent of all cells. Adult humans have somewhere around 25 trillion RBCs in their body, on average. Albumin is the most abundant circulating protein found in plasma. It represents half of the plasma's total protein content (3.5 g/dL to 5 g/dL) in healthy human patients. Liver hepatocytes synthesize albumin and rapidly excrete it into the bloodstream at about 10g to 15g per day.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Vvj6i0Scb8&t=19s
Part 3: Haemoglobin - Structure, Synthesis, Types, and Function
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1MnCAksql4&t=427s
Pathophysiology 34_ Hematologic System 1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuYLylFYlBA&t=866s
Part 4: Iron Physiology and its Clinical Relevance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFa_i0k6pHI
How Your Body Makes Blood
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMqwV9Vb4_Y
Understanding Erythropoiesis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2B-vGHUJI9M
Why does 'young blood' slow ageing in old mice?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8cCgBp8DAb8
This Is How Your Body Makes New Blood
Histone Octamer in biology, histones are highly basic proteins abundant in LYSINE & ARGiNiNE residues that are found in eukaryotic cell nuclei and in most Archaeal phyla. Histones have globular central domains with lysine- and arginine-rich C and N termini these termini make extensive contact with the nucleosomal DNA Lysine is an essential amino acid needed in the human diet Arginine is considered to be a conditionally essential amino acid Lysine and arginine are abundant amino acids in histones, histones are proteins that help organize DNA in cells. Lysine & Arginine amino acids give histones a positive charge that helps histones bind to DNA's negative charge. Histone lysine & arginine residues can be modified by acetylation, citrullination, methylation, ubiquitination & sumoylation these modifications are a major epigenetic mechanism for controlling gene expression. Enzymes that disrupt histones have been linked to a number of human diseases, including cancer, heart disease & diabetes - Histones act as spools around which DNA winds to create structural units called nucleosomes. Nucleosomes in turn wrap into 30-nanometer fibers that form tightly packed chromatin. Histones prevent DNA from becoming tangled and protect it from DNA damage. In addition, histones play important roles in gene regulation and DNA replication. Without histones, unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long. For example, each human cell has about 1.8 meters of DNA if completely stretched out; however, when wound about histones, this length is reduced to about 9 micrometers (0.09 mm) of 30 nm diameter chromatin fibers. There are five families of histones, which are designated H1/H5 (linker histones), H2, H3, and H4 (core histones). The nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B dimers and a H3-H4 tetramer. Histones are best known as major components of the nucleosome structure in eukaryotic cells, contributing to gene transcription regulation. They are characteristically classified into two groups: lysine (Lys)-rich histones (H1, H2A, and H2B) and arginine (Arg)-rich histones (H3 and H4). The tight wrapping of DNA around histones, is to a large degree, a result of electrostatic attraction between the positively charged histones and negatively charged phosphate backbone of DNA. Histones may be chemically modified through the action of enzymes to regulate gene transcription. The most common modifications are the methylation of arginine or lysine residues or the acetylation of lysine. Methylation can affect how other proteins such as transcription factors interact with the nucleosomes. Lysine acetylation eliminates a positive charge on lysine thereby weakening the electrostatic attraction between histone and DNA, resulting in partial unwinding of the DNA, making it more accessible for gene expression. In all, histones make five type of interactions with DNA: Salt bridges and hydrogen bonds between side chains of basic amino acids (especially lysine & arginine) and phosphate oxygens on DNA
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that coordinates many bodily functions, including: Hormone production: The hypothalamus releases hormones that control the thyroid, adrenal, and reproductive glands, as well as growth, fluid balance, and milk production. Temperature regulation: The hypothalamus regulates body temperature. Autonomic nervous system: The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system. Appetite: The hypothalamus controls appetite and weight. Sleep-wake cycle: The hypothalamus regulates the sleep-wake cycle. Sex drive: The hypothalamus controls sex drive. Emotions and behavior: The hypothalamus influences emotions and behavior. The hypothalamus acts as the body's control center, keeping the body in a stable state called homeostasis. It does this by receiving signals from other parts of the brain and releasing hormones, or by directly influencing the autonomic nervous system. Ferroptosis is a new form of cell death that results from iron accumulation and lipid peroxidation in cells. It involves depletion in the antioxidant enzymes resulting in lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. The Hypothalamus controls growth reproduction & metabolism recently it has been discovered that the Hypothalamus controls ageing it makes a chemical called NF-KB this chemical speeds up ageing when NF-KB is eliminated mice live longer & healthier
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=03ttzl6llQ8
Researchers Reverse Aging in Mice With Stem Cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=INk3AGy-QOc&t=10s
Can Science Stop Aging?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPzv0Ns7tJY
IINN Grand Rounds "Hypothalamic Control of Aging and Obesity" by Marianna Sadagurski, Ph D
Immune system , the immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions. Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system. Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against viral infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient plants and animals and remain in their modern descendants. These mechanisms include phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement system. Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates an immunological memory leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. Dysfunction of the immune system can cause autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer. Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. Autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZTf3OXJDWA&t=110s
Human Immune System - How it works! (Animation)
Inside the eye, the human eye is an organ of the sensory nervous system that reacts to visible light & allows the use of visual information for various purposes including seeing things, keeping balance, & maintaining circadian rhythm. Mark 9:47 & if thine eye offend thee, pluck it out: it is better for thee to enter into the kingdom of God with one eye, than having two eyes to be cast into hell fire: There are 137 Million Light sensitive cells in the retina & the fluid surrounding the eye is changed 15 times a day
the human eye is 576 megapixels along with proteoglycans, elastin and glycoproteins, the sclera is composed of collagen fibrils – with heterotypic structures of types I and III collagen (but including small amounts of types V and VI) – arranged in discontinuous fibers of variable diameters in interlacing fiber bundles or defined lamellar patterns.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eySkNWTI03Q
What Happens Inside Your Eyes - 3D Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DF-66akgJ7A
5 SUPPLEMENTS to Protect Eyes & Reduce Vision Loss🔥Dr. Michael Greger
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LexKZva0s4I
Where the Light Touches Your Eyes｜Phototransduction and Rhodopsin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQc495llAk0
The SHOCKING Truth About SIGHT That Nobody Wants You to Know
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCsUTMOZBxE
How the Human Eye Works! (Animation)
inside the human cell In total, we estimate total body counts of ≈36 trillion cells in the male, ≈28 trillion in the female, and ≈17 trillion in the child. if you ask what supplements increase stem cells, these include vitamin D3 and C, Curcumin, Glucosamine, Chondroitin, Resveratrol and Fish Oil. The nucleus of a human cell is only about 6 micrometers in diameter. Atherosclerosis is thickening or hardening of the arteries. It is caused by a buildup of plaque in the inner lining of an artery. Plaque is made up of deposits of fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium, and fibrin. As it builds up in the arteries, the artery walls become thickened and stiff. A typical proliferating human cell divides on average every 24 h. This division timing allows cells to synchronize with other physiological processes and with the environment. The circadian clock, which orchestrates daily rhythms, directly regulates the cell division cycle and is a major synchronizing factor. Sulfur is a precursor to glutathione takes 4hours the gal bladder and liver produce bile which break down polyunsaturated fats pancreas releases amalase trypsin and lipase which break down starch and protein into amino acids new cells are built up by protein gut produces t b cells & macrophages blood volume is typically replaced within 24 hours. Red blood cells take between 4-6 weeks to completely replace, which is why the FDA requires an 8 week wait between blood donations. The vagus nerve joins the brain to the gut The body stops making glutathione past the age of 30 There are 37 Mitochondria dna the kidney filter about 1,800 litres of blood and excretes the filtered waste of products and toxins through urine. It takes just five minutes for all the blood in our body to pass through the kidneys; every day this happens about 300 times. Low levels of alt Alanine transaminase is good for the body Chronic alcohol consumption, drugs, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and chronic viral hepatitis are common causes associated with raised ALT and Aspartate transaminase. low albumin levels are bad centenarians have high albumin levels Creatinine, which is a waste product produced by the muscles, gets filtered out by the kidneys. Your blood test result got flagged because a buildup of creatinine in the blood can be a sign of impaired kidney function.For example, very few of the centenarians had a glucose level above 6.5 earlier in life, or a creatinine level above 125. We found that, on the whole, those who made it to their hundredth birthday tended to have lower levels of glucose, creatinine and uric acid from their 60s onwards. Polyphenols activate sirtuins 30 grams of dark chocolate daily led to significant increase in nitric oxide levels in the blood. The body stops making T cells past the age of 20 as we age we lose NAD levels. The heart beats 100 thousand times a day 1kg of adipose fat burns 4.5kcal 1kg muscles 13kcal 1kg heart tissue burns 240kcal 1 kg brain tissue burns 440kcal .The loss of electrons is called oxidation resulting in free radicals, antioxidants donate electrons to reactive oxygen species, free radicals are produced when we breath and digest food when we smoke or by pollution or uv light, beta caretine vitamin A glutathione is comprised of 3 amino acids—cysteine, glutamic acid, and glycine. Glutathione is also synthesized in the body. Removal of peroxidases decreases with age, obesity accelerates epigenetic aging of human liver, hiv accelerates epigenetic aging in blood and brain tissue. Ubiquitin is the chemical tag used to label damaged proteins for disposal — antioxidants remove peroxides inflammation is tissue damage children born under c section have a higher chance of asthma immune diseases and leukemia. The Hayflick Limit is a concept that helps to explain the mechanisms behind cellular aging. The concept states that a normal human cell can only replicate and divide forty to sixty times before it cannot divide anymore, and will break down by programmed cell death or apoptosis. 10 million atp molecules can be generated per second in a cell, organisms grow because cells are dividing to produce more and more cells. In human bodies, nearly two trillion cells divide every day.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=919JWKiNR6U
Chapter 2 The Cell
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fwW86e3tFv4
Secret lives of cells – Life sciences
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eur-68WNnV8
what are cells in human body|| what are cells made of|| What are cells?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-l-KaBtqLU8&list=PL9oD9rkXaEyU5Wc0lOEc-3cs5F7r4yLaw&index=12
Cell Transport and Solutions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1jBN00zda8
Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Cell in 7 Minutes!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTCO9qVXbLk
Cycle of Life: The Cell’s Journey!
intestines according to available information, the human intestines can hold roughly 1-3 gallons of fluid, with the majority of absorption happening in the small intestine, which receives around 1-3 gallons of liquid per day, while the large intestine (colon) primarily absorbs water from this liquid, leaving behind solid waste to be excreted. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of the large intestine. In human anatomy, the intestine (bowel or gut; Greek: éntera) is the segment of the gastrointestinal tract extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the anus and as in other mammals, consists of two segments: the small intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal. Main articles: Small intestine, Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum. The small intestine begins at the duodenum and is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. Its mucosal area in an adult human is about 30 m2 (320 sq ft) The combination of the circular folds, the villi, and the microvilli increases the absorptive area of the mucosa about 600-fold, making a total area of about 250 m2 (2,700 sq ft) for the entire small intestine. Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins) into the bloodstream. There are three major divisions: Duodenum: A short structure (about 20–25 cm long) that receives chyme from the stomach, together with pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes and bile from the gall bladder. The digestive enzymes break down proteins, and bile emulsifies fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in the chyme. Jejunum: This is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long and contains the circular folds also known as plicae circulares and villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here. ileum: The final section of the small intestine. an ileum is about 3 m long contains villi similar to the jejunum. the ileum absorbs mainly vitamin B12 & bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients. The large intestine, also called the colon, forms an arch starting at the cecum and ending at the rectum and anal canal. It also includes the appendix, which is attached to the cecum. Its length is about 1.5 m, and the area of the mucosa in an adult human is about 2 m2 (22 sq ft). Its main function is to absorb water and salts. The colon is further divided into: Cecum (first portion of the colon) and appendix Ascending colon (ascending in the back wall of the abdomen) Right colic flexure (flexed portion of the ascending and transverse colon apparent to the liver) Transverse colon (passing below the diaphragm) Left colic flexure (flexed portion of the transverse and descending colon apparent to the spleen) Descending colon (descending down the left side of the abdomen) Sigmoid colon (a loop of the colon closest to the rectum) Rectum anal canal
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Zbqo_hrwXc
The intestine - The body’s underappreciated control center and gut health | DW Documentary
Kidneys God created the human body when God created Adam in the garden of Eden, in this video we take a look at the Kidneys which produce red blood cells and filter out waste fluids. 1 Corinthians 15:35-40 But some man will say, How are the dead raised up? and with what body do they come? 36 Thou fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die: 37 And that which thou sowest, thou sowest not that body that shall be, but bare grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other grain: 38 But God giveth it a body as it hath pleased him, and to every seed his own body. 39 All flesh is not the same flesh: but there is one kind of flesh of men, another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds. 40 There are also celestial bodies, and bodies terrestrial: but the glory of the celestial is one, and the glory of the terrestrial is another.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuTlwFreqlc
Kidney Failure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CShAIAD-ask
How Your Kidneys Work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZ3BZBBC-Qc
How is urine produced in the body?KIDNEY, NEPHRON, BLADDER FUNCTION|Anatomy of the Urinary System
Melanin (from Ancient Greek μέλας (mélas) 'black, dark') is a family of biomolecules organized as oligomers or polymers, which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms.[1] Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes. There are five basic type of melanin: eumelanin, pheomelanin, neuromelanin, allomelanin and pyomelanin. Melanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as melanogenesis, where the oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine is followed by polymerization. Pheomelanin is a cysteinated form containing polybenzothiazine portions that are largely responsible for the red or yellow tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's. Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen-free melanin. The phenotypic color variation observed in the epidermis and hair of mammals is primarily determined by the levels of eumelanin and pheomelanin in the examined tissue. In an average human individual, eumelanin is more abundant in tissues requiring photoprotection, such as the epidermis and the retinal pigment epithelium. In healthy subjects, epidermal melanin is correlated with UV exposure, while retinal melanin has been found to correlate with age, with levels diminishing 2.5-fold between the first and ninth decades of life, which has been attributed to oxidative degradation mediated by reactive oxygen species generated via lipofuscin-dependent pathways. In the absence of albinism or hyperpigmentation, the human epidermis contains approximately 74% eumelanin and 26% pheomelanin, largely irrespective of skin tone, with eumelanin content ranging between 71.8–78.9%, and pheomelanin varying between 21.1–28.2%.[7] Total melanin content in the epidermis ranges from around 0 μg/mg in albino epidermal tissue[8] to >10 μg/mg in darker tissue. In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to UV radiation, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation. Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of malignant melanoma, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker skin tone.
Melanin was created by God almighty before the garden of Eden even animals have Melanin Melanin (from Ancient Greek μέλας (mélas) 'black, dark') is a family of biomolecules organized as oligomers or polymers, which among other functions provide the pigments of many organisms. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as melanocytes. There are five basic types of melanin: eumelanin, pheomelanin, neuromelanin, allomelanin and pyomelanin. Eumelanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as melanogenesis, where the oxidation of the amino acid tyrosine is followed by polymerization. Eumelanin is the most common type. Pheomelanin, which is produced when melanocytes are malfunctioning due to derivation of the gene to its recessive format, is a cysteine-derivative that contains polybenzothiazine portions that are largely responsible for the red or yellow tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's. Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen-free melanin. In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to UV radiation, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation. Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of malignant melanoma, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker skin tone you should know black Adam & Eve had Albino white kids who populated Europe
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9aO1yg_J_ZA
Melanin Physiology: Melanin Absoprtion of UV Light and Internal Conversion to Heat
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MwgrgsLXBsQ
How do Melanocytes Make Melanin?: Melanogenesis Mechanism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFw8mMzH5YA&t=2s
The Biology of Skin Color — HHMI BioInteractive Video
Mitochondria was first described by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890. (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles within eukaryotic cells that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the cell. For this reason, the mitochondrion is sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell”. Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotes, which are all living things that are not bacteria or archaea. having 16 000 base pair DNA it is thought that mitochondria arose from once free-living bacteria that were incorporated into cells. Mitochondria produce ATP through process of cellular respiration—specifically, aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen. The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, takes place in the mitochondria. This cycle involves the oxidation of pyruvate, which comes from glucose, to form the molecule acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA is in turn oxidized and ATP is produced.
The citric acid cycle reduces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to NADH. NADH is then used in the process of oxidative phosphorylation, which also takes place in the mitochondria. Electrons from NADH travel through protein complexes that are embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This set of proteins is called an electron transport chain. Energy from the electron transport chain is then used to transport proteins back across the membrane, which power ATP synthase to form ATP. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pO5Ve6vDk2I&list=LL&index=1
Mitochondria Structure and Function Animation / USMLE Step 1 Physiology
The amount of mitochondria in a cell depends on how much energy that cell needs to produce. Muscle cells, for example, have many mitochondria because they need to produce energy to move the body .Each heart muscle cell contains between 5,000 and 8,000 mitochondria. Red blood cells, which carry oxygen to other cells, have none; they do not need to produce energy. Mitochondria are analogous to a furnace or a powerhouse in the cell because, like furnaces and powerhouses, mitochondria produce energy from basic components (in this case, molecules that have been broken down so that they can be used).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQM5ZW5bc2I&list=LL&index=1
Mitochondrial Trafficking in Neurons
Cristae Mitochondria have many other functions as well. They can store calcium, which maintains homeostasis of calcium levels in the cell. They also regulate the cell’s metabolism and have roles in apoptosis (controlled cell death), cell signaling, and thermogenesis (heat production).
Mitochondria have two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane. These membranes are made of phospholipid layers, just like the cell’s outer membrane. The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion, while the inner membrane is located within and has many folds called cristae. The folds increase surface area of the membrane, which is important because the inner membrane holds the proteins involved in the electron transport chain. It is also where many other chemical reactions take place to carry out the mitochondria’s many functions. An increased surface area creates more space for more reactions to occur, and increases the mitochondria’s output. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called the matrix. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and ATP molecules.
Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins. It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the synthesis of ATP molecules. Mitochondria dna is 16569 basepairs double stranded mamalian mitochondria contain 37 genes 13 polypeptides mitovhondria regulate calcium homeostasis apoptosis radical species generation radical species scavenging steroid biosynthesis & metabolism
Mitochondria are different in different cells, the atp molecule is made of oxygen phosphate hydrogen nitrogen Amino radical (chemical formula NH • 2) and methylene. 70kg person = 40kg of atp a day. The classical image of mitochondria in a cell was taken from electron micro-graphs of the liver cells. But they are two dimensional. In the heart, a cardiocyte may have just several mitochondria which are branched and very large. In the brain, small mitochondria are located at the synaptic junctions, but further, in the axon and in the body, they are much larger and metabolically are different. Synaptic mitochondria use lactate for energy production. Lactate is produced by astrocytes from fatty acids, whereas mitochondria in axons and in the body of a neuron consume glucose. So, mitochondria are so different, even in the same cell. Again, it depends on the organ you study. In general, one mitochondria may have thousand of respirasomes consisting from complexes, and each complex has different number of copies, as was indicated by Dr. Galkin. When working with mitochondria you have to be very specific and remember that there are close connections between the functions of organ and mitochondria, and cells, since each organ is constructed from different types of cells. And you have to keep in mind that mitochondria metabolize not just one substrate, but a mixture of substrates different in different organs. There are 600 thousand mitochondria per egg cell and 7 thousand mitochondria in each heart cell Recent experiments have shown that ATP production in mitochondria is interrupted by ten-second bursts called “mitochondrial flashes” (or mitoflashes for short), during which the mitochondria release chemicals called reactive oxygen species. Average lifespan of mitochondria dna is 10-20 days.
There are 7 sirtuins 12567 are found in the nucleus sirtuin 126 found in cytosol sirtuin 3 (Leucine) 4 & 5 found in mitochondria sirtuins replicate mitochondria. Each heart muscle contains 5,000 to 20,000 Mitochondria 20% of the body is mitochondria each neuron can have up to 2 million mitochondria the mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both plant and animal cell. Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter. The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process: Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like testosterone and oestrogen Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the compartments of the cell It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell signalling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth. Mitochondrial diseases: Alpers Disease, Barth Syndrome, Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS) supplement with coq10 & astaxanthine there are about 500 000 mitochondria DNA in each ovary egg cell platelets white blood cells each have 5 mitochondria .The mitochondria matrix is an aqueous environment (IE watery) so there is a constant supply of H+ and OH-. hydrogen ion, H+ is strictly, the nucleus of a hydrogen atom separated from its accompanying electron. The hydrogen nucleus is made up of a particle carrying a unit positive electric charge, called a proton. The isolated hydrogen ion, represented by the symbol H+, is therefore customarily used to represent a proton. OH- is Hydroxide a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst. The electron transport chain scoops these protons & sends them across the inner mitochondrial membrane to create the proton gradient. Additional protons are also provided by the oxidation of NADH to NAD+ & H+. the bone marrow creates 100 million platelets everyday platelets are the most numerous blood cell in the blood Mitochondria live for about 10 days the growth and division of pre-existing mitochondria for enough mitochondrial population to meet cell energy demands. If mitochondria are "out of the cell," it means they are located outside the cellular membrane, which is not their normal location; this happens when a cell is damaged undergoing programmed cell death (apoptosis), and the mitochondria release components like cytochrome c into the extracellular space, signifying a signal for cell destruction; in most cases, mitochondria cannot survive or function properly outside of a cell due to their dependence on the cellular environment for energy production; however, recent research suggests that under certain conditions, extracellular mitochondria might play a role in cell signaling and immune responses.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WEECyKKgNo0
Mitochondria - Jodi Nunnari (UC Davis)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LQmTKxI4Wn4&list=PLltdM60MtzxM6jjoW6mRxYuGzZoSWDYwe
Electron transport chain
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2trKetGBf48
Producing Young Mitochondria Accessible For Everyone - Mitochondrial Transplantation For Longevity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnw76pfiteQ
Jared Rutter (U. Utah, HHMI) 1: Mitochondria: The Mysterious Cellular Parasite
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kOG9OfA-ZUc
Why Use Molecular Hydrogen (H2)? | Biohacking Your Mitochondria Part 7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXDkK-eZeuk
Mitochondria Structure & Function
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GKMdtM0mHXI
Nootropics for PEAK PERFORMANCE: Hack Your MITOCHONDRIA!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D12eku7AqZs
How to Supercharge Your Mitochondria for Energy, Endurance, and Longevity! - A Comprehensive Guide
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_6kKWZgWOw
Mitochondria In Stunning 3D 4K Animation
The nephron is the minute or microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and a cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule. The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A healthy adult has 1 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement membrane, and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule. The tubule has adjacent peritubular capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule. As the fluid from the capsule flows down into the tubule, it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the tubule: water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged (some are added, others are removed); first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules, and then into the plasma in the adjacent peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary. This process regulates the volume of body fluid as well as levels of many body substances. At the end of the tubule, the remaining fluid—urine—exits: it is composed of water, metabolic waste, and toxins. The interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space, collects the filtrate from the filtering capillaries of the glomerular tuft, which also contains mesangial cells supporting these capillaries. These components function as the filtration unit and make up the renal corpuscle. The filtering structure (glomerular filtration barrier) has three layers composed of endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and podocytes (foot processes). The tubule has five anatomically and functionally different parts: the proximal tubule, which has a convoluted section the proximal convoluted tubule followed by a straight section (proximal straight tubule); the loop of Henle, which has two parts, the descending loop of Henle ("descending loop") and the ascending loop of Henle ("ascending loop"); the distal convoluted tubule ("distal loop"); the connecting tubule, and the last part of nephron the collecting ducts. Nephrons have two lengths with different urine-concentrating capacities: long juxtamedullary nephrons and short cortical nephrons. The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert blood to urine) are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion. Filtration or ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Over 150 liters of fluid enter the glomeruli of an adult every day: 99% of the water in that filtrate is reabsorbed. Reabsorption occurs in the renal tubules and is either passive, due to diffusion, or active, due to pumping against a concentration gradient. Secretion also occurs in the tubules and collecting duct and is active. Substances reabsorbed include: water, sodium chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, magnesium, calcium phosphate, uric acid, and bicarbonate. Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate. Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis and polycystic kidney disease.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fkkc_HVAVlo
The Nephron
Neurons The longest cell in the human body is the nerve cell, also referred to as the neuron. Neurons are specialized cells that ensure the proper functioning and coordination of the organs. Neurons are up to 1-1.5 meters in length and consist of dendrites, soma, & axon. Within a nervous system, a neuron, neurone, or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that fires electric signals called action potentials across a neural network. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap. 80 to 100 billion neurons 100 trillion synapses myelin ages the brain has a high metabolic demand 15% of cardiac output 20% of oxygen consumption 20% of body glucose
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5i3jBhxI4Q
The Aging but Resilient Brain: Keeping Neurons Happy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZthGjcuTDs
How Your Brain Makes Its Own Electricity
Phosphorylation In biochemistry, phosphorylation is the attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule or an ion. This process & its inverse, dephosphorylation, are common in biology. Protein phosphorylation often activates (or deactivates) many enzymes. Phosphorylation is essential to the processes of both anaerobic and aerobic respiration, which involve the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "high-energy" exchange medium in the cell. During aerobic respiration, ATP is synthesized in the mitochondrion by addition of a third phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in a process referred to as oxidative phosphorylation. ATP is also synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation during glycolysis. ATP is synthesized at the expense of solar energy by photophosphorylation in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Take phosphorus supplements of ayushkart.ca
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D4QXR8Exzjo
Protein Kinases: Cell Signaling and Phosphorylation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG2WOd_fWqo
Cell signalling: kinases & phosphorylation
Red Blood cells , blood pressure video to prevent atherosclerosis take collagen iron & mineral supplements
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ab9OZsDECZw
How blood pressure works - Wilfred Manzano
Regenerating bone
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ft4Xruv4A8w
Revolution in Bone Regeneration
Tp53, also known as Tumor protein P53, cellular tumor antigen p53 , or transformation-related protein 53 (TRP53) is a regulatory protein that is often mutated in human cancers. The p53 proteins (originally thought to be, and often spoken of as, a single protein) are crucial in vertebrates, where they prevent cancer formation. As such, p53 has been described as "the guardian of the genome" because of its role in conserving stability by preventing genome mutation. Hence TP53 is classified as a tumor suppressor gene. The TP53 gene is the most frequently mutated gene (50%>) in human cancer, indicating that the TP53 gene plays a crucial role in preventing cancer formation. TP53 gene encodes proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression to prevent mutations of the genome. In addition to the full-length protein, the human TP53 gene encodes at least 12 protein isoforms. Vitamin B6 activates Tp53 and elevates p21 gene expression in cancer cells and the mouse colon. The nutritional supplements taurine & Panacur Fenbendazole activates Tp53-dependent & independent tumor suppressor mechanisms in various cellular models of ovarian cancer. In vitro experiments have shown that vitamin C (ascorbic acid) can reduce cell proliferation and induce apoptosis through upregulation of Tp53, p21, and Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 in T-cell colonies . Furthermore, Harakeh and colleagues demonstrated that the administration of nontoxic doses of ascorbic acid increased the expression of p53 . Vitamin C increases the ability of the anticancer drug bleomycin to produce DSBs, which makes cancer cells more dependent on functional DNA repair for survival . Vitamin B6 activates the p53 pathway, which is responsible for controlling p21 mRNA transcription in HT29, Caco2, LoVo, HEK293T, and HepG2 cancer cells. p21 mRNA levels were higher in the colon of mice fed a diet with adequate vitamin B6 than those fed a vitamin B6-deficient diet, and this may help to understand the antitumor effect of vitamin B6 via the activation of p53 and elevation of p21 mRNA . A previous study suggested that 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D increased oxidative stress through inhibiting transcription of Nrf2, enhancing DNA damage and activation of p16/Rb and p53/p21 signaling in a 1α(OH)ase−/− mouse model . Folic acid (vitamin B9) might play an important role in the chemoprevention of gastric carcinogenesis. In humans, the tumor suppressor Tp53 expression in the gastric mucosa was significantly increased, while the expression of Bcl-2 oncogene protein decreased after folic acid supplementation . Furthermore, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits PDK1 expression through PPARα-mediated induction of p53 and reduction of p65 protein expression and unveils a novel mechanism by which NAC in combination with the PPARα ligand inhibits the growth of non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cells . β-Carotene, ascorbic acid, and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) protect against oxidative stress but reveal no direct influence on p53 expression in rats subjected to stress . In contrast, β-carotene exacerbates DNA oxidative damage and modifies p53-related pathways of cell proliferation and apoptosis in cultured RAT-1 fibroblasts exposed to tobacco smoke condensate (tar). Quercetin increased the phosphorylation of p53 protein and induced apoptosis of the human leukemia cell line in a dose-dependent manner . A recent study revealed that quercetin inhibits HeLa cell proliferation through cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase and apoptosis induction through the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway through p53 induction . Further, apigenin can induce p21, p53, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-activated gene-1 (NAG-1) proteins in kinase pathways, including protein kinase C delta (PKCd) and ATM, which plays an important role in activating these proteins in colorectal cancer cell growth arrest. Further, kaempferol warrants as an antiangiogenetic agent, which reduced human umbilical vein endothelial cell viability-induced DNA damage and DNA fragmentation through activating the levels of caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 signaling, which were upregulated by ROS-mediated p53/ATM molecules following stimulations of p53 downstream protein levels of Fas/CD95, death receptor 4 (DR4), and DR5 . Another study revealed Acacetin, an O-methylated flavone, which can strongly inhibit tumor growth and induce tumor shrinkage in mice, which is closely correlated with its increasing p53 expression accompanied by decreased retinoic acid receptor gamma (RARγ) and reduced AKT activity in liver cancer cell lines . It was further reported that low Securin levels and high p53 levels play an important role in determining the sensitivity of human colon cancer cells to fisetin. Depletion of securin enhances fisetin-induced apoptosis and decreases the resistance of p53-deficient cells to fisetin and might be an attractive strategy for the treatment of human colon cancers . The inhibitory effect of fisetin against bladder cancer by activation of p53 and downregulation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway in a rat bladder carcinogenesis model has been documented, which is a safe and efficacious agent and promising therapeutic approach for bladder cancer . Furthermore, Luteolin treatment increases the expression of p53 and p21 proteins and decreases the expression of MDM4 protein in both NSCLC cells and tumor tissues . Theaflavins induced G2/M arrest by modulating the expression of various proteins, which are involved in signaling. Moreover, theaflavins via p53 signaling inhibited Bcl-2 and interfered phagocytes via modulation of I-κB/NF-κB, as well as the expression of VEGF, and the phosphorylation of VEGFR was reduced in LNCaP cells . Furthermore, epigallocatechin-3-gallate activates p53-dependent downstream targets p21/WAF1 and Bax and downregulates NF-κB-dependent Bcl-2 that results in growth arrest & apoptosis in LNCaP cells . Our previous study revealed that effector proteins like Chk1, Chk2, and p53 were found to be phosphorylated in NNK acetate-treated BEAS-2B cells, and pretreatment with apple flavonoids showed a significant reduction in the levels of phosphorylation of ATR, Chk1, and p53 in NNK acetate-treated cells. Apple flavonoids protect BEAS-2B cells challenged against various carcinogens by assisting DNA repair mechanisms. Scientists link elephants' high resistance to cancer to their 20 copies of the p53 gene – the 'guardian of the genome' – compared with the single p53 gene found in other mammals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RG9caushI0
The Role of p53 in Cancer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6SjkIYClAkQ
p53 Tumour Suppressor (2016) by Etsuko Uno wehi.tv
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akALHORX9MY
What Goes Wrong in Cancer?
Sirtuins are a family of signaling proteins involved in metabolic regulation. They are ancient in animal evolution and appear to possess a highly conserved structure throughout all kingdoms of life. Chemically, sirtuins are a class of proteins that possess either mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase or deacylase activity, including deacetylase, desuccinylase, demalonylase, demyristoylase and depalmitoylase activity. The name Sir2 comes from the yeast gene 'silent mating-type information regulation 2', the gene responsible for cellular regulation in yeast. From in vitro studies, sirtuins were thought to be implicated in influencing cellular processes like aging, transcription, apoptosis, inflammation and stress resistance, as well as energy efficiency and alertness during low-calorie situations. As of 2018, there was no clinical evidence that sirtuins affect human aging, and a 2022 review criticized researchers who propagate this claim. Yeast Sir2 and some, but not all, sirtuins are protein deacetylases. Unlike other known protein deacetylases, which simply hydrolyze acetyl-lysine residues, the sirtuin-mediated deacetylation reaction couples lysine deacetylation to NAD+ hydrolysis. This hydrolysis yields O-acetyl-ADP-ribose, the deacetylated substrate and nicotinamide, which is an inhibitor of sirtuin activity itself. These proteins utilize NAD+ to maintain cellular health and turn NAD+ to nicotinamide (NAM). The dependence of sirtuins on NAD+ links their enzymatic activity directly to the energy status of the cell via the cellular NAD+:NADH ratio, the absolute levels of NAD+, NADH or NAM or a combination of these variables. Sirtuins that deacetylate histones are structurally and mechanistically distinct from other classes of histone deacetylases (classes I, IIA, IIB and IV), which have a different protein fold and use Zn2+ as a cofactor. Recent findings imply that phytochemicals such as resveratrol, curcumin, quercetin, fisetin, berberine, and kaempferol may regulate the activity of sirtuins. Resveratrol mainly activates SIRT1 and indirectly activates AMPK.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=auuYUPx4uK4
How To Beat Cellular Aging | Sirtuins, NAD+ and Aging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tjq6-FONcJA
The longevity sirtuin – what you need to know about SIRT6
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0sj12JGDzE
All-Natural SIRT6 Longevity Supplement Pioneered & Verified By A Prestigious Professor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLFKQ-nAWdQ
Why SIRT6 Contributes To A LONGER LIFESPAN? | Dr Vera Gorbunova Clips
Sugar Phosphate structure Sugar phosphates C6H13O9P are carbohydrates that have a phosphate group attached to them. They are phosphoric acid esters of monosaccharides. Sugar phosphates are intermediates in carbohydrate metabolism and are found in nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. Glucose 6-phosphate: A sugar phosphate that can be formed when glucose is phosphorylated at the C primary hydroxyl group , Glucose 1-phosphate: A sugar phosphate that can be formed when glucose is phosphorylated at the C anomeric hydroxyl group , Deoxyribose phosphate: A sugar phosphate that is a constituent of nucleotides and nucleic acids ,Ribose phosphate: A sugar phosphate that is a constituent of nucleotides and nucleic acids Sugar phosphates are involved in the metabolic pathways of biosynthesis and degradation. They are also involved in the energy metabolism of cells Sugar phosphates (sugars that have added or substituted phosphate groups) are often used in biological systems to store or transfer energy. They also form the backbone for DNA and RNA. Sugar phosphate backbone geometry is altered in the vicinity of the modified nucleotides. The phosphodiester backbone of DNA and RNA consists of pairs of deoxyribose or ribose sugars linked by phosphates at the respective 3' and 5' positions. The backbone is negatively charged and hydrophilic, which allows strong interactions with water. Sugar-phosphate backbone forms the structural framework of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA. Sugar phosphates are defined as carbohydrates to which a phosphate group is bound by an ester or an either linkage, depending on whether it involves an alcoholic or a hemiacetalic hydroxyl, respectively. Solubility, acid hydrolysis rates, acid strengths, and ability to act as sugar group donors are the knowledge of physical and chemical properties required for the analysis of both types of sugar phosphates. The photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle is closely associated with sugar phosphates, and sugar phosphates are one of the key molecules in metabolism,(Sugar phosphates are major players in metabolism due to their task of storing and transferring energy. Not only ribose 5-phosphate but also fructose 6-phosphate are an intermediate of the pentose-phosphate pathway which generates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and pentoses from glucose polymers and their degradation products.) oxidative pentose phosphate pathways, gluconeogenesis, important intermediates in glycolysis. Sugar phosphates are not only involved in metabolic regulation and signaling but also involved in the synthesis of other phosphate compounds.
Tau proteins (abbreviated from tubulin associated unit) form a group of six highly soluble protein isoforms produced by alternative splicing from the gene MAPT (microtubule-associated protein tau). They have roles primarily in maintaining the stability of microtubules in axons and are abundant in the neurons of the central nervous system (CNS), where the cerebral cortex has the highest abundance. They are less common elsewhere but are also expressed at very low levels in CNS astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Pathologies and dementias of the nervous system such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease are associated with tau proteins that have become hyperphosphorylated insoluble aggregates called neurofibrillary tangles. The tau proteins were identified in 1975 as heat-stable proteins essential for microtubule assembly, and since then they have been characterized as intrinsically disordered proteins.
The tau hypothesis states that excessive or abnormal phosphorylation of tau results in the transformation of normal adult tau into paired-helical-filament (PHF) tau and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). The stage of the disease determines NFTs' phosphorylation. In AD, at least 19 amino acids are phosphorylated; pre-NFT phosphorylation occurs at serine 199, 202 and 409, while intra-NFT phosphorylation happens at serine 396 and threonine 231. Through its isoforms and phosphorylation, tau protein interacts with tubulin to stabilize microtubule assembly. All of the six tau isoforms are present in an often hyperphosphorylated state in paired helical filaments (PHFs) in the AD brain. Tau mutations have many consequences, including microtubule dysfunction and alteration of the expression level of tau isoforms. Mutations that alter function and isoform expression of tau lead to hyperphosphorylation. The process of tau aggregation in the absence of mutations is not known but might result from increased phosphorylation, protease action or exposure to polyanions, such as glycosaminoglycans. Hyperphosphorylated tau disassembles microtubules and sequesters normal tau, MAPT 1 (microtubule associated protein tau 1), MAPT 2 and ubiquitin into tangles of PHFs. This insoluble structure damages cytoplasmic functions and interferes with axonal transport, which can lead to cell death. Hyperphosphorylated forms of tau protein are the main component of PHFs of NFTs in the brain of AD patients. It has been well demonstrated that regions of tau six-residue segments, namely PHF6 (VQIVYK) and PHF6* (VQIINK), can form tau PHF aggregation in AD. Apart from the PHF6, some other residue sites like Ser285, Ser289, Ser293, Ser305 and Tyr310, located near the C-terminal of the PHF6 sequences, play key roles in the phosphorylation of tau. Hyperphosphorylated tau differs in its sensitivity and its kinase as well as alkaline phosphatase activity and is, along with beta-amyloid, a component of the pathologic lesion seen in Alzheimer disease. A recent hypothesis identifies the decrease of reelin signaling as the primary change in Alzheimer's disease that leads to the hyperphosphorylation of tau via a decrease in GSK3β inhibition. A68 is a name sometimes given (mostly in older publications) to the hyperphosphorylated form of tau protein found in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer's disease. In 2020, researchers from two groups published studies indicating that an immunoassay blood test for the p-tau-217 form of the protein could diagnose Alzheimer's up to decades before dementia symptoms were evident. Autophagy clears up misfolded tau proteins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izRAjlx876Y
Tau Protein Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtOKJequi3A
A new perspective on the role of phosphorylation in Alzheimer’s and other tau pathologies
Telomerase are made of Nitrogen Hydrogen Oxygen & phosphorus make sure to supplement in order to increase your telomeres Telomerase, also called terminal transferase, is a ribonucleoprotein that adds a species-dependent telomere repeat sequence to the 3' end of telomeres. A telomere is a region of repetitive sequences at each end of the chromosomes of most eukaryotes. Telomeres protect the end of the chromosome from DNA damage or from fusion with neighbouring chromosomes. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster lacks telomerase, but instead uses retrotransposons to maintain telomeres. Telomerase is a reverse transcriptase enzyme that carries its own RNA molecule (e.g., with the sequence 3′-CCCAAUCCC-5′ in Trypanosoma brucei) which is used as a template when it elongates telomeres. Telomerase is active in gametes and most cancer cells, but is normally absent in most somatic cells. The existence of a compensatory mechanism for telomere shortening was first found by Soviet biologist Alexey Olovnikov in 1973, who also suggested the telomere hypothesis of aging and the telomere's connections to cancer and perhaps some neurodegenerative diseases. Telomerase in the ciliate Tetrahymena was discovered by Carol W. Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn in 1984. Together with Jack W. Szostak, Greider and Blackburn were awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery. Later the cryo-EM structure of telomerase was first reported in T. thermophila, to be followed a few years later by the cryo-EM structure of telomerase in humans. The role of telomeres and telomerase in cell aging and cancer was established by scientists at biotechnology company Geron with the cloning of the RNA and catalytic components of human telomerase and the development of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based assay for telomerase activity called the TRAP assay, which surveys telomerase activity in multiple types of cancer. The negative stain electron microscopy (EM) structures of human and Tetrahymena telomerases were characterized in 2013. Two years later, the first cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of telomerase holoenzyme (Tetrahymena) was determined. In 2018, the structure of human telomerase was determined through cryo-EM by UC Berkeley scientists.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i6nE6gUp2cw
Telomerase Function - Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wf6QiIlGxSg
Telomerase Replication in Eukaryotes | End Replication
The brain is 2% of body mass frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe ,pons ,medulla oblongata & brainstem 1 Corinthians 2:16 For who hath known the mind of the Lord, that he may instruct him? But we have the mind of Christ. God created the mind of man whoever is not living with God shall not have the mind of God whoever lives without God shall be mentally insane. 40% of the brain is made of unsaturated fatty acids called omega 3 DHA makes up over 90% of the n-3 PUFAs in the brain and 10%–20% of its total lipids. DHA is especially concentrated in the gray matter DHA comprises approximately 40% of total fatty acids in the brain, while EPA comprises less than 1% of total brain acids. Approximately 50-60% of the brain weight comprises lipids, of which 35% consists of omega-3 PUFAs.The human brain weighs about 3 lbs. (1.4 kilograms) & makes up about 2% of a human's body weight. On average, male brains are about 10% larger than female brains, according to Northwestern Medicine in Illinois. The average male has a brain volume of nearly 78 cubic inches (1,274 cubic centimeters), while the average female brain has a volume of 69 cubic inches (1,131 cubic cm). The cerebrum, which is the main part of the brain located in the front area of the skull, makes up 85% of the brain's weight. The interior structure of a leech is divided into 32 different segments, each of which has its own brain. Silkworms have 11 brains. The brain, which serves as the silkworm's primary control centre, is situated in the centre of the head. Thanks to their nine brains, it seems that octopuses have the benefit of both localised and centralised control over their actions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kMKc8nfPATI
The Brain
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CurW-sIQPxU&list=LL&index=1
Human Nervous System (Part 2) - Brain (Animation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P4_bULdls6w&t=4373s
Secrets Of The Human Brain. A Journey Into the Unknown
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aCCsRCw78g
Introduction: Neuroanatomy Video Lab - Brain Dissections
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMim0uU1yzA
What happens to your brain as you age
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5UuNa8AaDQ
"It is in this Part of the Brain where GOD Communicates with Men" Barbara O'Neill
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HM1qps2qLlI
Korean researchers find key cause of bipolar disorder
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vpXrgJ5aj_4&t=79s
How Does a Child's Brain Develop? | Susan Y. Bookheimer PhD | UCLAMDChat
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvBfAqk70LU
Dr. Octavio Choi presents Brain Basics: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZLAUu8S-g0
BIO 168 Module 11 - The Cerebrum
The heart is a muscular organ found in most animals. The human heart beats 60 times a minute, this organ pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to the lungs. In humans, the heart is approximately the size of a closed fist and is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest, called the mediastinum. In humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers: upper left and right atria and lower left and right ventricles. Commonly, the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart. Fish, in contrast, have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while most reptiles have three chambers. In a healthy heart, blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. In all vertebrates, the heart has an asymmetric orientation, almost always on the left side. According to one theory, this is caused by a developmental axial twist in the early embryo. The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node. These generate an electric current that causes the heart to contract, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. In humans, deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. From here, it is pumped into pulmonary circulation to the lungs, where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta into systemic circulation, traveling through arteries, arterioles, and capillaries—where nutrients and other substances are exchanged between blood vessels and cells, losing oxygen and gaining carbon dioxide—before being returned to the heart through venules and veins. The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. Exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers it in the long term, and is good for heart health. Cardiovascular diseases are the most common cause of death globally as of 2008, accounting for 30% of all human deaths. Of these more than three-quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke. Risk factors include: smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high Low Density Lipoprotein bad cholesterol, high blood pressure, and poorly controlled diabetes, among others. Cardiovascular diseases do not frequently have symptoms but may cause chest pain or shortness of breath. Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history, listening to the heart-sounds with a stethoscope, as well as with ECG, and echocardiogram which uses ultrasound. Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists, although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment. The heart, in contrast, doesn¿t get exposed to many carcinogens, just those in the blood. That, combined with the fact that the heart cells do not often replicate, is why you don¿t see much cancer of the heart muscle. Indeed, according to cancer statistics, cancer does not appear to occur at any measurable rate. After birth, the heart makes about 1% to 2% new heart cells per year, a process that continues for the first half of life. In the second half of life, however, the heart cells lose their ability to divide. This degree of myocyte formation ensures that the entire cell population of the heart is replaced approximately every 4.5 years. nearly 30% of the heart can be replaced within 1 year if you take you nitrogen oxide , Hydrogen peroxide and DNA supplements if not you suffer heart attack; scientists found that new heart cells were generated from pre-existing cardiomyocytes rather than progenitor cells. They estimated a yearly renewal rate of less than 1% during normal, healthy conditions. The rate of cell regeneration, they found, declined with age. The most abundant loss of cardiomyocytes occurs during a myocardial infarction, when the blood supply to the heart is obstructed, and the affected myocardium succumbs to cell death.The myocardial connective tissue maintaining the functional integrity of the heart mainly consists of collagen type I 80% & collagen type III 20%. Along with proteoglycans, elastin and glycoproteins, the sclera is composed of collagen fibrils – with heterotypic structures of types I and III collagen (but including small amounts of types V and VI) – arranged in discontinuous fibers of variable diameters in interlacing fiber bundles or defined lamellar patterns.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_PYnWVoUzM
What happens during a heart attack? - Krishna Sudhir
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pd3TFB0wOI0&t=31s
The heart makers
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mv3dKgwbJ7U
Anatomy and Physiology of The Heart
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2YgRJ70ZIyU
New Research Into Heart Health | Breakthrough
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dgAbpwp9gF8
Cardiovascular | Structures and Layers of the Heart
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SC5fKdrYi6w
Histology of the Heart – Histology | Lecturio
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KPKLq-LQjbc
The Difference Between Cardiac Arrest, Heart Attack, and Heart Failure - 3D Animation
The Krebs cycle The citric acid cycle—also known as the Krebs cycle, Szent–Györgyi–Krebs cycle, or TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)—is a series of biochemical reactions to release the energy stored in nutrients through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol. The chemical energy released is available in the form of ATP. The Krebs cycle is used by organisms that respire (as opposed to organisms that ferment) to generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration. In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism. Even though it is branded as a "cycle", it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three alternative segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized. The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH[6]) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle. The cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl-CoA) and water, reduces NAD+ to NADH, releasing carbon dioxide. The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport) pathway. The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP. In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, which lack mitochondria, the citric acid cycle reaction sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across the cell's surface (plasma membrane) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. For each pyruvate molecule (from glycolysis), the overall yield of energy-containing compounds from the citric acid cycle is three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubzw64PQPqM
KREBS CYCLE MADE SIMPLE - TCA Cycle Carbohydrate Metabolism Made Easy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JOncWQUpMzc
Krebs Cycle | Made Easy!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juM2ROSLWfw
Krebs / citric acid cycle | Cellular respiration | Biology | Khan Academy
Tp53, also known as Tumor protein P53, cellular tumor antigen p53 , or transformation-related protein 53 (TRP53) is a regulatory protein that is often mutated in human cancers. The p53 proteins (originally thought to be, and often spoken of as, a single protein) are crucial in vertebrates, where they prevent cancer formation. As such, p53 has been described as "the guardian of the genome" because of its role in conserving stability by preventing genome mutation. Hence TP53 is classified as a tumor suppressor gene. The TP53 gene is the most frequently mutated gene (50%>) in human cancer, indicating that the TP53 gene plays a crucial role in preventing cancer formation. TP53 gene encodes proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression to prevent mutations of the genome. In addition to the full-length protein, the human TP53 gene encodes at least 12 protein isoforms. Vitamin B6 activates Tp53 and elevates p21 gene expression in cancer cells and the mouse colon. The nutritional supplements taurine & Panacur Fenbendazole activates Tp53-dependent & independent tumor suppressor mechanisms in various cellular models of ovarian cancer. In vitro experiments have shown that vitamin C (ascorbic acid) can reduce cell proliferation and induce apoptosis through upregulation of Tp53, p21, and Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 in T-cell colonies . Furthermore, Harakeh and colleagues demonstrated that the administration of nontoxic doses of ascorbic acid increased the expression of p53 . Vitamin C increases the ability of the anticancer drug bleomycin to produce DSBs, which makes cancer cells more dependent on functional DNA repair for survival . Vitamin B6 activates the p53 pathway, which is responsible for controlling p21 mRNA transcription in HT29, Caco2, LoVo, HEK293T, and HepG2 cancer cells. p21 mRNA levels were higher in the colon of mice fed a diet with adequate vitamin B6 than those fed a vitamin B6-deficient diet, and this may help to understand the antitumor effect of vitamin B6 via the activation of p53 and elevation of p21 mRNA . A previous study suggested that 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D increased oxidative stress through inhibiting transcription of Nrf2, enhancing DNA damage and activation of p16/Rb and p53/p21 signaling in a 1α(OH)ase−/− mouse model . Folic acid (vitamin B9) might play an important role in the chemoprevention of gastric carcinogenesis. In humans, the tumor suppressor Tp53 expression in the gastric mucosa was significantly increased, while the expression of Bcl-2 oncogene protein decreased after folic acid supplementation . Furthermore, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits PDK1 expression through PPARα-mediated induction of p53 and reduction of p65 protein expression and unveils a novel mechanism by which NAC in combination with the PPARα ligand inhibits the growth of non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cells . β-Carotene, ascorbic acid, and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) protect against oxidative stress but reveal no direct influence on p53 expression in rats subjected to stress . In contrast, β-carotene exacerbates DNA oxidative damage and modifies p53-related pathways of cell proliferation and apoptosis in cultured RAT-1 fibroblasts exposed to tobacco smoke condensate (tar). Quercetin increased the phosphorylation of p53 protein and induced apoptosis of the human leukemia cell line in a dose-dependent manner . A recent study revealed that quercetin inhibits HeLa cell proliferation through cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase and apoptosis induction through the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway through p53 induction . Further, apigenin can induce p21, p53, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-activated gene-1 (NAG-1) proteins in kinase pathways, including protein kinase C delta (PKCd) and ATM, which plays an important role in activating these proteins in colorectal cancer cell growth arrest. Further, kaempferol warrants as an antiangiogenetic agent, which reduced human umbilical vein endothelial cell viability-induced DNA damage and DNA fragmentation through activating the levels of caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 signaling, which were upregulated by ROS-mediated p53/ATM molecules following stimulations of p53 downstream protein levels of Fas/CD95, death receptor 4 (DR4), and DR5 . Another study revealed Acacetin, an O-methylated flavone, which can strongly inhibit tumor growth and induce tumor shrinkage in mice, which is closely correlated with its increasing p53 expression accompanied by decreased retinoic acid receptor gamma (RARγ) and reduced AKT activity in liver cancer cell lines . It was further reported that low Securin levels and high p53 levels play an important role in determining the sensitivity of human colon cancer cells to fisetin. Depletion of securin enhances fisetin-induced apoptosis and decreases the resistance of p53-deficient cells to fisetin and might be an attractive strategy for the treatment of human colon cancers . The inhibitory effect of fisetin against bladder cancer by activation of p53 and downregulation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway in a rat bladder carcinogenesis model has been documented, which is a safe and efficacious agent and promising therapeutic approach for bladder cancer . Furthermore, Luteolin treatment increases the expression of p53 and p21 proteins and decreases the expression of MDM4 protein in both NSCLC cells and tumor tissues . Theaflavins induced G2/M arrest by modulating the expression of various proteins, which are involved in signaling. Moreover, theaflavins via p53 signaling inhibited Bcl-2 and interfered phagocytes via modulation of I-κB/NF-κB, as well as the expression of VEGF, and the phosphorylation of VEGFR was reduced in LNCaP cells . Furthermore, epigallocatechin-3-gallate activates p53-dependent downstream targets p21/WAF1 and Bax and downregulates NF-κB-dependent Bcl-2 that results in growth arrest & apoptosis in LNCaP cells . Our previous study revealed that effector proteins like Chk1, Chk2, and p53 were found to be phosphorylated in NNK acetate-treated BEAS-2B cells, and pretreatment with apple flavonoids showed a significant reduction in the levels of phosphorylation of ATR, Chk1, and p53 in NNK acetate-treated cells. Apple flavonoids protect BEAS-2B cells challenged against various carcinogens by assisting DNA repair mechanisms. Scientists link elephants' high resistance to cancer to their 20 copies of the p53 gene – the 'guardian of the genome' – compared with the single p53 gene found in other mammals.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2RG9caushI0
The Role of p53 in Cancer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6SjkIYClAkQ
p53 Tumour Suppressor (2016) by Etsuko Uno wehi.tv
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akALHORX9MY
What Goes Wrong in Cancer?
The human Body God created the human body when God created Adam in the garden of Eden, in this video we take a look at the Kidneys which produce red blood cells and filter out waste fluids. 1 Corinthians 15:35-40 But some man will say, How are the dead raised up? and with what body do they come? 36 Thou fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die: 37 And that which thou sowest, thou sowest not that body that shall be, but bare grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other grain: 38 But God giveth it a body as it hath pleased him, and to every seed his own body. 39 All flesh is not the same flesh: but there is one kind of flesh of men, another flesh of beasts, another of fishes, and another of birds. 40 There are also celestial bodies, and bodies terrestrial: but the glory of the celestial is one, and the glory of the terrestrial is another.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuTlwFreqlc
Kidney Failure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CShAIAD-ask
How Your Kidneys Work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZ3BZBBC-Qc
How is urine produced in the body?KIDNEY, NEPHRON, BLADDER FUNCTION|Anatomy of the Urinary System
Urinary tract 1 Corinthians 15:43-44 It is sown in dishonour; it is raised in glory: it is sown in weakness; it is raised in power: It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body. There is a natural body, and there is a spiritual body.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZ3BZBBC-Qc&list=LL&index=5
How is urine produced in the body?KIDNEY, NEPHRON, BLADDER FUNCTION|Anatomy of the Urinary System